![]() While these findings do not rule out a direct role of queen mothers and harem politics in Ottoman affairs, they are more in line with a longer-term channel of cultural transmission between the Valide Sultans and their sons. Depending on the empirical specification, the reign of a sultan with a European maternal genealogy was enough to offset more than 70% of the empire’s western orientation in imperial conquests. It was only in the 1760ies that the Ottomans, whose army had a completely different structure as well as different weapons compared to Central European armies. Using comprehensive data on Ottoman wars and conflicts covering the reigns of 31 Ottoman sultans between 14, I document that the ethnic background of the Valide Sultan (queen mother) was an important and independent determinant of whether the empire engaged in military conquests in Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East. In 1683, Ottoman forces under military leader and grand vizier Kara. ![]() The wars were dominated by land campaigns in Hungary, including Transylvania (today in Romania) and. Since the fall of Constantinople in 1571, the Ottoman Empire had expanded into Europe. In this article, I exploit the empire’s unique culture and institutions to examine the roles of ethnicity and religion in conflict and war. The OttomanHabsburg wars were fought from the 16th through the 18th centuries between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg monarchy, which was at times supported by the Kingdom of Hungary, PolishLithuanian Commonwealth, and Habsburg Spain. The Ottoman Empire had a profound impact in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa at the apogee of its power, covering the era between 14.
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